3. Waste prevention and reuse policies in EU and Nordic countries

The Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC) (WFD) sets out the basic concepts and definitions related to waste management, including the waste hierarchy, and introduces waste prevention, recycling, and recovery targets.

According to the EU waste hierarchy (Article 4 of the Waste Framework Directive (WFD)), waste prevention measures, followed by reuse, are the top priority when it comes to waste management and policy. Article 9 (1) (j) of the WFD obliges Member States to reduce the generation of waste, in particular waste that is not suitable for preparing for reuse and recycling.

Member States are obliged to adopt waste prevention programmes (Article 29 of the WFD) incorporating at least those waste prevention measures that are listed in Article 9 of the WFD. Waste prevention programmes must be evaluated at least every six years.

There are several notable and recent directives and regulations presented in Table 2 that aim to minimise and avoid waste at different (in some cases, all) stages of the production–use chain.

Table 2. Relevant recent directives and regulation focusing on minimising and avoiding waste in several parts of the value chain.

Besides regulation and directives, some EU-level initiatives (presented in Table 3) are already active or emerging at the moment.

Table 3. Examples of EU-level initiatives on waste prevention.

Many requirements are still flowing from the WFD. For example, the WFD mandates that from 2025, EU Member States must establish separate collection systems for used textiles.

The concept of ecodesign and the whole product lifecycle has been taken further with recent directives and regulations. The provision of data and information is emphasised in later legislation; consumers should receive trustworthy and relevant information on products at the point of sale, including on their lifespan and on the availability of repair services, spare parts, and repair manuals, and there is a greater emphasis on the management of goods during their design and consumption lifecycle phases.

Each Nordic country (Finland, Åland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands) has its own national waste plan and/​or other related policies and programmes. The common thread of the national waste plans’ targets is significantly reducing waste generation and enhancing reuse and recycling. However, the level of ambition varies, and some of the national policies are still much more focused on waste management and recycling than waste prevention. In addition to this, many of the countries have other policies and programmes to promote the circular economy and waste prevention. Below is a summary of waste prevention and reuse policies outlined in key policy documents of the Nordic countries.

On 16 June 2020, a broad political agreement was reached on the Climate Plan for a Green Waste Sector and Circular Economy in Denmark. The agreement contains the following visions for a green waste sector:

In order to increase recycling and reduce CO₂ emissions, the plan aims to implement three elements. First, the amount of waste needs to be reduced, with more waste sent for recycling and less to incineration. Secondly, the incineration capacity must be reduced and adjusted to match Danish waste volumes, so the available capacity is not filled up with imported waste. And thirdly, investments must be made in new recycling plants.

In 2021, the Ministry of Environment published the CEAP 2020–2032. The plan complements the political agreement of climate plan with a number of different measures. Regarding recycling, the municipalities in Denmark are set to ensure that citizens can sort 10 fractions to increase the overall recycling rate. Virtually all the municipalities have completed this.

On 1 July 2025, EPR for packaging will come into force in Denmark. The aim of this is to reduce the amount of packaging produced. Additionally, the strategy Plastics Without Waste and its 2018 action plan contains 27 initiatives, one of the main elements of which is the establishment of a national plastics centre, which is to be the focal point for Danish plastics efforts. Other main initiatives are a ban on thin plastic bags as well as better and more uniform sorting and collection of plastic waste.

The vision of the Finnish National Waste Plan (Ministry of the Environment, 2022a) is to significantly reduce the amount of waste produced by 2030, while also elevating levels of reuse and recycling. To achieve this goal, the plan emphasises waste prevention through a variety of actions. One key initiative is the introduction of voluntary agreements involving the state, municipalities, and various sectors, which aims to foster collaboration in minimising waste. Additionally, public administrations are committed to reducing both the volume and harmfulness of waste generated through their own activities. The plan also seeks to enhance awareness and provide valuable information on waste prevention, separate collection, and waste management advice for businesses via the Suomi.fi service, ultimately aiming to reduce waste generation in the business sector. To further support waste prevention and promote recycling, there will be an assessment of the necessity for an increase in the waste tax and an extension of its scope. The plan also highlights reducing plastic waste in line with the Plastics Roadmap for Finland (Ministry of the Environment, 2022b) and ensuring funding for necessary projects.

The Plastics Roadmap for Finland outlines several targets and measures related to waste prevention and reuse. One of the key initiatives involves implementing the measures required by the SUP Directive through a green deal agreement between business organisations and the Ministry of the Environment. This agreement focuses on replacing disposable plastic portion packs with reusable or plastic-free alternatives, and it introduces a separate fee for consumers who use these portion packs. Additionally, public authorities will discontinue the use of disposable containers made partially or fully of plastic at public events and in public spaces. The roadmap also aims to reduce unnecessary packaging for building products while promoting new packaging solutions and films made from recycled materials.

The third important Finnish policy action is the Strategic Programme for the Circular Economy (Ministry of the Environment, 2021). This programme aims to maintain Finnish consumption of primary raw materials at its 2015 levels by 2035, focusing on reducing non-renewable resource use while promoting the sustainable usage of renewable resources. By 2035, the aim is for the productivity of resources to have doubled compared to 2015, with a further aim of doubling the circular material use rate (CMU). The vision is for sustainable products and services to become mainstream in the economy, with the sharing economy integrated into everyday life. Through the transition to a circular economy, Finland aims to position itself as a strong player in the global arena, providing sustainable solutions in the international market.

Iceland’s Waste Prevention Programme 2016–27 has been included in Iceland’s strategy for circular economy, published June 2021 (Ministry for the Environment and Natural Resources, 2021). The general goals of the waste prevention programme are to reduce waste generation and greenhouse gas emissions, improve the utilisation of resources (with an emphasis on innovation), reduce the use of raw materials while also reducing the environmental impact, and reduce the distribution of substances that are harmful to health and the environment.

Iceland has developed action plans with targets for key waste flows, including food waste, plastics, textiles, and electronics, aiming for sector-specific waste reduction (European Environment Agency, 2023b). For example, in the case of textiles and footwear, the goal is to limit consumption to no more than 10 kg per person per year. The Icelandic action plan for plastics includes targets such as reducing the amount of plastics in packaging, increasing the recycling rates of plastics and raising awareness of the excessive consumption of single-use plastics (The Government Council of Iceland, 2020). Hackathons are also being used as a creative platform to address environmental challenges. The Circular Economy Team at the Environment Agency of Iceland (2023) has prepared a guide to organising an environmentally themed onsite or online hackathons.

Norway’s national waste plan 2020–2025 was compiled by the Norwegian Environment Agency and published by the government in 2019. This plan describes waste quantities, the status of processing different types of waste, and treatment and recycling facilities in Norway. The plan also sets out the need for changes in the waste infrastructure on the basis of EU requirements for preparation for reuse and material recycling.

A key national goal in the plan is to ensure that the increase in waste is considerably smaller than the growth of the national economy. The plan also highlights the importance of utilising waste as efficiently as possible. Other waste-related objectives will be addressed in the future. Norway also aims to eliminate or reduce emissions of substances harmful to health and the environment and to halve food waste by 2030.

In addition to the national waste plan, Norway has a national strategy for a green, circular economy, which offers action points for various sectors. The strategy states that Norway aims to be a role model in the circular economy. Four main areas of focus are addressed in this strategy:

Sweden’s national waste plan 2018–2024, ‘Doing more with less,’ (Swedish Government, 2018) describes the targets, instruments, and measures to manage waste in Sweden in accordance with the waste hierarchy. The plan is primarily aligned with the waste minimisation targets outlined in European legislation. A significant national milestone within the plan is a 20% reduction in per capita food waste between 2022 and 2025.The document emphasises the phasing out of environmentally hazardous substances from material cycles, as well as the importance of new technologies, innovative products and services, sustainable business models, and changes in consumer behaviours in the transition to the circular economy. A number of sector and material specific plans that detail specific measures are referred to. The ongoing increase in waste generation is recognised, as well as the need for a broad range of measures to reverse this. Better material selection, technologies, behavioural changes, business models, economic development and reduced environmental and climate impacts are identified as factors tied to the circular economy.

In November 2024, at the time of publishing the present report, Sweden renewed its national waste plan (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2024a). The new waste plan ‘Waste in a circular society’ 2024–2030 is accompanied by a waste prevention programme which emphasizes the waste hierarchy and focuses on prolonging life cycles in a sustainable circular economy (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2024b).

To assist in the development of the policy landscape, the Swedish Government initiated the Delegation for a Circular Economy in 2014. Its remit is to research and advise the Swedish Government on policy areas that facilitate businesses' transition to the circular economy. The delegation has also convened a committee on financial instruments for the circular economy. It was appointed by the Swedish Government to investigate suggestions previously raised by the delegation. It reported in October 2024 on financial instruments that could be further investigated across a range of materials, including textiles, plastic packaging, and consumer electronics.

In 2020, ‘Circular economy – Strategy for the transition in Sweden’ (Swedish Government, 2020) was published, along with a management plan for the circular transition and a management plan for plastics. The plan has four focus areas: design and production, consumption models, hazard-free and circular loops, and circular economy as a driver for business and innovation. The management plan details specific measures that shall be pursued. An example of measures detailed in the plan, and subsequently implemented, is the reduction of VAT on repairs to bicycles, shoes, leather goods, clothing, and household textiles from 25% to 12% (this was lowered to 6% in 2022 but then subsequently raised back to 12% in 2023).

Examples of waste minimisation and avoidance goals in the circular management plan for plastics (Swedish Government, 2020) include a commitment to limiting the use of thin plastic carrier bags to 40 per person per year by 2025, and the obligation on the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency to monitor this. Other Swedish initiatives include the introduction of standards for the circular economy by the Swedish Institute for Standards, focusing on terminology, business models and evaluation.

In summary, there is a large body of plans, measures, and commitments regarding the circular economy, of which waste minimisation is only one part alongside other environmental and economic considerations. The targets are mainly tied to existing European legislation, and many of the measures outlined in public plans are still in the process of being implemented.

In the Faroe Islands, there is no national waste policy. However, the current Faroese government has initiated a process working towards a new regulation and national plan for waste handling. The intention is to increase sorting of waste fractions and to ensure the quality of fractions for reuse as a part of the bigger plan to transition the whole of Faroese society towards the circular economy.

Currently, municipal waste management legislation includes a waste hierarchy to be followed (reuse, recycling, incineration, landfill). Municipalities are responsible for collecting and processing waste, which is incinerated, except for hazardous waste and paper/cardboard. Landfilling is still very prevalent.

Greenland's waste plan for the period 2020–2031 sets the objective of reducing waste volumes in the public and business sectors through continued efforts. In terms of direct reuse initiatives, the government encourages municipalities to support and guide private initiatives that promote reuse, such as second-hand shops and repair workshops. The waste plan highlights the many existing private initiatives and notes that both the government and municipalities can play a key role in creating a supportive environment for waste prevention actions and disseminating information about these initiatives.

Åland's waste plan dates back to 2010, and updates for the current programme are planned, although they have not yet been published (as of autumn 2024). The waste plan includes several action points, such as designating specific areas for recycling centres where visitors can drop off and collect items for reuse, integrating sustainable development education into school curricula, and launching awareness-raising campaigns aimed at businesses and the general public. It also promotes EPR schemes, incorporating waste prevention requirements into environmental audits, and setting waste prevention criteria for public procurement.

In addition to the waste plan, Åland has developed a strategy to prevent plastics and microplastics from entering the environment, focusing on reducing plastic use and phasing out unnecessary plastics. Furthermore, Åland has a development and sustainability agenda, with the main strategic goal of promoting "sustainable and mindful patterns of consumption and production." This agenda includes sub-goals of reducing the amount of waste generated on Åland to a maximum of 1.2 tonnes per person per year and achieving a lifestyle based on circular economy principles for at least 80% of the population.

The WFD (2008/98/EC) sets the foundation for waste prevention and reuse efforts in the EU. The waste hierarchy places waste prevention and reuse efforts as the top priorities. The WFD, along with directives on packaging, plastics, and ecodesign, are driving the transition toward the circular economy. For instance, the Packaging and Packaging Waste Regulation (PPWR) aims to eliminate unnecessary packaging, while the SUP Directive seeks to reduce the environmental impact of certain plastic products. The Right to Repair (R2R) introduces common rules to strengthen the repairability of goods. Additionally, the ESPR, which replaces the previous Ecodesign Directive, focuses on sustainable product design. At the time of writing, EPR for textiles is under negotiation in the EU, potentially incorporating eco-modulated fees that account for environmental and climate impacts across the product lifecycle.

All Nordic countries have addressed waste prevention to varying extents in the key policy documents. These documents recognise both voluntary and regulatory-based policy actions, including voluntary agreements, the promotion of eco-friendly public procurement, increased waste taxation, and targeted initiatives such as plastic waste reduction and improved waste sorting. Educational measures and awareness campaigns are also emphasised, alongside the need for innovation in resource utilisation, EPR and the integration of sustainable practices into public policy.

A shift is underway from traditional, narrower waste policy towards a more comprehensive circular economy approach, aiming for waste reduction on a larger scale. National strategic circular economy programmes represent an important step toward more holistic waste prevention policies to minimise waste and maximise resource efficiency at all societal levels. This shift aligns with ongoing European Union work, as the concept of ecodesign and the whole product lifecycle have been taken further with recent regulatory developments, including the provision of data and information for consumers.

Nordic policy documents acknowledge that current waste prevention efforts are inadequate. The plans emphasise the need for improved tools and measures to better monitor and promote waste prevention. To effectively drive systemic waste reduction and reuse, it is crucial for Nordic countries to explore new options and extend the existing good policies for the circular economy.